In the fast-paced world of cloud computing, developers are constantly searching for ways to build and deploy applications faster and more efficiently. The traditional model of provisioning and managing servers is often slow, expensive, and complex. This is where Azure Functions comes in, a powerful serverless compute service that lets you run code without the headache of managing infrastructure.
This comprehensive article will demystify Azure Functions, exploring its core features, architecture, and real-world applications. We'll compare it to its competitors, bust common myths, and provide a practical, step-by-step example for building a stream processing solution. By the end of this guide, you'll be well-equipped to leverage the power of serverless computing with Azure Functions.
1. What is an Azure Function?
An Azure Function is a small, event-driven piece of code that runs in a serverless environment.
The key to an Azure Function is its event-driven nature. It only runs when a specific trigger event occurs. For example, a function can be triggered by:
An HTTP request (perfect for building APIs).
A new message in a queue.
A new file uploaded to Blob Storage.
A timer, running on a specific schedule.
This "pay-for-what-you-use" model makes Azure Functions incredibly cost-effective, as you are only billed for the compute resources consumed while your code is actually executing.
2. Key Features of Azure Functions
Azure Functions comes packed with features that make it a robust and flexible choice for serverless development:
Choice of Languages: Azure Functions supports a wide range of programming languages, including C#, Python, JavaScript, Java, PowerShell, and more. This flexibility allows developers to use the language they're most comfortable with.
Triggers and Bindings: This is a core concept that simplifies development. Triggers are events that cause a function to run. Bindings provide a declarative way to connect your function to external data sources and services. Input bindings make data available to your function, while output bindings automatically write data from your function. This means you can integrate with services like Azure Cosmos DB, Azure Storage, and Event Hubs with minimal boilerplate code.
Flexible Hosting Plans: Azure Functions offers multiple hosting plans to fit different needs and budgets:
Consumption Plan: The true serverless model. Instances are dynamically allocated and scaled out automatically. You pay only for execution time and memory.
19 This is the most common and cost-effective plan for intermittent or variable workloads.Premium Plan: Provides pre-warmed instances to eliminate cold starts, offers VNet integration, and supports longer execution times. This is ideal for performance-sensitive applications.
Dedicated (App Service) Plan: Runs your functions on a dedicated App Service Plan, giving you a fixed cost and predictable performance. It's suitable for scenarios where you already have a plan or have a need for consistent, always-on instances.
Durable Functions: An extension of Azure Functions that allows you to write stateful, long-running serverless workflows in code. It simplifies complex orchestration patterns like function chaining, fan-in/fan-out, and human interaction.
23
3. Internal Architecture of Azure Functions
The internal architecture of Azure Functions is a sophisticated, distributed system that ensures reliability, scalability, and efficiency.
Event Detection: A trigger receives a signal (e.g., an HTTP request or a new queue message).
Scaling and Instance Creation: The runtime's scale controller monitors the event source. If a function needs to run but no instance is available, the controller creates a new instance on a pre-warmed server. This is the part that can cause a "cold start" delay.
Code Execution: The function's code is loaded and executed.
Binding Integration: Input bindings pull data from external sources, and output bindings push the results to other services, all handled by the runtime without you having to write the code for these interactions.
Billing and Deallocation: Once the function completes its task, the instance is held for a short period in case more requests come in. If it remains idle, it's deallocated to save costs.
This architecture allows Azure to manage the underlying compute resources, letting developers focus solely on their code and business logic.
4. What are the Benefits of Azure Functions?
Leveraging Azure Functions provides a number of compelling benefits for businesses and developers:
Reduced Costs: With the Consumption Plan, you only pay for what you use, down to the millisecond. There's no cost for idle time, which can lead to significant savings, especially for event-driven, intermittent workloads.
Simplified Development: Triggers and bindings dramatically simplify data integration. You don't need to write code to connect to databases or message queues; you simply declare your bindings in a
function.jsonfile or with attributes in your code.Automatic Scaling: Azure Functions automatically scales out or in based on demand. Whether your application receives 10 requests or 10,000, the platform handles the scaling, ensuring your application remains responsive without manual intervention.
Increased Productivity: By offloading infrastructure management and boilerplate code, developers can focus on writing business logic, leading to faster development cycles and quicker time-to-market.
Open and Flexible: The Functions runtime is open-source, allowing for community contributions and cross-platform development. You can develop and test functions locally using the Azure Functions Core Tools.
5. Compare Azure Functions with AWS and Google Services
When evaluating serverless platforms, it's important to understand how Azure Functions stacks up against its main competitors, AWS Lambda and Google Cloud Functions.
| Feature | Azure Functions | AWS Lambda | Google Cloud Functions |
| Hosting Plans | Consumption, Premium, Dedicated | On-demand, Provisioned Concurrency | On-demand, Second-Gen |
| Stateful Workflows | Durable Functions (built-in) | Step Functions (separate service) | Cloud Workflows (separate service) |
| Developer Tooling | Strong integration with Visual Studio and VS Code. | Robust tooling and CLI. | Good tooling, but often simpler. |
| Pricing Model | Pay-per-execution + GB-s | Pay-per-request + GB-s | Pay-per-invocation + GB-s |
| Cold Start Mitigation | Premium Plan, Pre-warmed instances. | Provisioned Concurrency. | Min Instances. |
| Ecosystem Integration | Deeply integrated with Azure's services. | Deeply integrated with AWS's services. | Deeply integrated with Google's services. |
While all three services offer similar core functionality, their strengths lie in their respective ecosystems. Azure Functions has a strong edge with its rich set of built-in bindings and the unique capability of Durable Functions for stateful orchestration, which is more tightly integrated than its competitors' offerings.
6. Hard Limits and Misconceptions on Azure Functions
It's crucial to understand the limitations and common myths to avoid unexpected costs or performance issues.
Hard Limits:
Execution Time: The default timeout for a function on the Consumption plan is 5 minutes.
41 While it can be configured up to 10 minutes, longer-running processes should use the Premium Plan or Durable Functions.Concurrent Executions: The number of concurrent executions can be capped to manage downstream dependencies, but the platform is designed for high concurrency.
Memory: Memory limits are tied to the hosting plan (e.g., 1.5 GB in the Consumption Plan), which can affect performance-intensive tasks.
Misconceptions:
"Free Tier is truly free": The Azure Free Tier provides a generous allocation (e.g., 1 million executions per month), but ancillary services like Application Insights for logging or outbound data transfer are not fully covered. Without careful monitoring and budget alerts, you can incur charges.
"Serverless means zero servers": This is misleading.
42 Serverless means you don't manage the servers, but the code still runs on a physical server managed by Azure.43 "Cold start isn't an issue": Cold starts, the delay for a new instance to spin up, are a very real issue, especially for languages with large runtimes or dependencies. The Premium Plan is designed specifically to mitigate this.
44
7. Top 10 Real-World Use Cases for Azure Functions
API and Webhook Processing: Create lightweight REST APIs or backend services that respond to HTTP requests.
Scheduled Tasks: Automate tasks like database cleanup, data archiving, or sending daily reports using a timer trigger.
Data Processing: Process new files uploaded to Blob Storage, transform data, and write it to a database.
Real-Time Stream Processing: Ingest and process high-volume, real-time data from sources like IoT devices via Azure Event Hubs.
Chatbots and Bot Frameworks: Handle message events from bot frameworks, processing user input and responding.
Serverless Workflows: Orchestrate complex, long-running processes using Durable Functions, like a multi-step order processing system.
IoT Backends: Process telemetry data from IoT devices, trigger alerts, and store data in a database for analysis.
Image and Video Processing: Automatically resize images, watermark videos, or analyze media files as they are uploaded to storage.
Database Change Notifications: Trigger a function when data in a database like Azure Cosmos DB is updated.
Microservices Architecture: Build and deploy independent, scalable microservices where each service is a single function.
8. Design Stream Processing with Azure Functions: A Step-by-Step Guide with Code
This example shows how to build a simple stream processing pipeline using an Azure Function with an Event Hubs trigger.
Scenario: You have IoT devices sending temperature data to an Event Hub. You want to process this data with a function that checks for a temperature above a certain threshold and logs an alert.
Prerequisites:
An Azure Subscription.
An Azure Event Hub Namespace with an Event Hub.
An Azure Functions App.
Azure Functions Core Tools.
Step 1: Create the Function App and Function
First, create a new function app and an Event Hub-triggered function.
# Create a new function app project
func init MyStreamProcessor --worker-runtime dotnet --docker
# Navigate into the project directory
cd MyStreamProcessor
# Create a new Event Hub trigger function
func new --name ProcessEvents --template EventHubTrigger
Step 2: Configure the function.json and Code
The function.json file defines the trigger and bindings. For a C# function, you'll use attributes in the code directly.
// ProcessEvents.cs
using System.Collections.Generic;
using Microsoft.Azure.WebJobs;
using Microsoft.Azure.EventHubs;
using Microsoft.Extensions.Logging;
namespace MyStreamProcessor
{
public static class ProcessEvents
{
[FunctionName("ProcessEvents")]
public static async Task Run(
[EventHubTrigger("my-event-hub", Connection = "EventHubConnection")] EventData[] events,
ILogger log)
{
foreach (EventData eventData in events)
{
string messageBody = Encoding.UTF8.GetString(eventData.Body.Array, eventData.Body.Offset, eventData.Body.Count);
log.LogInformation($"Event received: {messageBody}");
// Assuming the message is a JSON object with a 'temperature' property
dynamic data = JsonConvert.DeserializeObject(messageBody);
if (data.temperature > 30)
{
log.LogWarning($"ALERT: High temperature detected! Temperature: {data.temperature}");
// Here you could add an output binding to send a message to a Queue or a SignalR hub
}
}
}
}
}
Step 3: Configure the Connection String
In your local.settings.json (for local development) or Application settings (in the Azure Portal), add the connection string for your Event Hubs namespace.
{
"IsEncrypted": false,
"Values": {
"AzureWebJobsStorage": "UseDevelopmentStorage=true",
"FUNCTIONS_WORKER_RUNTIME": "dotnet",
"EventHubConnection": "Endpoint=sb://<your-event-hub-namespace>.servicebus.windows.net/; SharedAccessKeyName=RootManageSharedAccessKey;SharedAccessKey=<your-key>"
}
}
Step 4: Deploy and Monitor
Once ready, you can deploy your function to Azure using the CLI. The function will automatically scale as your event stream volume increases, providing a robust and hands-off solution for stream processing.
Final Conclusion
Azure Functions is a transformative service that empowers developers to build powerful, scalable, and cost-effective applications with a serverless mindset. Its event-driven nature, combined with robust features like triggers, bindings, and Durable Functions, makes it a go-to solution for a wide range of cloud-native scenarios.
Refer Azure Blog with Link on Azure Functions Cold Start Issue
The cold start issue is a critical topic in serverless computing.For an in-depth, official explanation from Microsoft, including a diagram and mitigation strategies, refer to the following Azure blog post:
Understanding serverless cold start | Microsoft Azure Blog
50 Good Azure Functions Knowledge Practice Questions
What is the primary benefit of using Azure Functions' Consumption Plan?
A. Predictable, fixed monthly cost.
B. It provides pre-warmed instances to eliminate cold starts.
C. You pay only for the compute resources consumed during execution.
D. It supports custom operating systems.
Answer: C. The Consumption Plan's main benefit is the pay-as-you-go, serverless billing model.
64
Which of the following is an example of an Azure Function trigger?
A. An output binding to Cosmos DB.
B. An HTTP request.
C. A Durable Function.
D. A dependency injection container.
Answer: B. A trigger is an event that starts a function; an HTTP request is a common trigger.
What is the maximum execution time for an Azure Function on the Consumption Plan?
A. 30 seconds
B. 5 minutes (configurable to 10 minutes)
C. 1 hour
D. Unlimited
Answer: B. The default is 5 minutes, but it can be extended up to 10 minutes.
67
What is the purpose of an input binding in Azure Functions?
A. To send data from the function to an external resource.
B. To receive data from a trigger.
C. To provide a declarative way to get data from an external resource.
D. To manage logging and telemetry.
Answer: C. Input bindings simplify data retrieval from sources like databases or storage.
Which Azure Functions feature allows you to write stateful serverless workflows?
A. Azure API Management
B. Azure Logic Apps
C. Durable Functions
D. Azure Event Grid
Answer: C. Durable Functions is an extension that enables stateful orchestration.
A "cold start" in Azure Functions refers to:
A. The function not being able to connect to a database.
B. The initial delay when a new instance is allocated and started.
3 C. An error that occurs during function execution.
D. The time it takes to process a large file.
Answer: B. A cold start is the latency associated with provisioning a new, idle instance.
Which of the following is NOT a type of Azure Function trigger?
A. Timer Trigger
B. Blob Trigger
C. Database Trigger
D. Cosmos DB Trigger
Answer: C. While functions can be triggered by database changes (e.g., Cosmos DB), there is no generic "Database Trigger" for all databases.
What is a "Function App"?
A. A single Azure Function.
B. A logical container for one or more Azure Functions.
C. A mobile application built with Azure Functions.
D. A specialized hosting plan.
Answer: B. A Function App is a deployment and management unit that holds multiple functions sharing settings
Which hosting plan is best for a mission-critical, low-latency API?
A. Consumption Plan
B. Dedicated (App Service) Plan
C. Premium Plan
D. All of the above are equally suited.
Answer: C. The Premium Plan's pre-warmed instances are designed to eliminate cold starts for low-latency scenarios.
83
True or False: The Azure Functions runtime is open source.
84 A. True
B. False
Answer: A. The Azure Functions runtime is open source and available on GitHub.
85
Which component of Azure Functions is responsible for automatically scaling out instances based on event volume?
A. The
host.jsonfile.86 B. The scale controller.
C. The function code itself.
D. Azure API Management.
Answer: B. The scale controller monitors event queues and triggers to manage scaling.
What is the main difference between Azure Functions and Azure Logic Apps?
A. Functions are for serverless workflows; Logic Apps are for code.
B. Functions are code-first; Logic Apps are low-code/no-code workflows.
87 C. Functions are for long-running processes; Logic Apps are for short ones.
88 D. There is no difference, they are the same service.
Answer: B. Functions are ideal for developers writing code, while Logic Apps offer a visual designer for building integrations without code.
89
Which language is NOT supported by the Azure Functions runtime?
A. Python
B. Go
C. C#
D. JavaScrip
Answer: B. While you can use a custom handler to run Go, it's not natively supported by the official Azure Functions worker runtime.
What is a "Durable Orchestrator Function"?
A. A function that handles HTTP requests
B. A function that calls and manages other "Activity" functions.
C. A function that runs on a timer.
D. A function that processes messages from a queue.
Answer: B. An orchestrator function defines and manages a workflow by calling other activity functions.
93
How can you test an Azure Function locally before deploying it?
A. You cannot; it must be deployed to Azure to run.
B. Using the Azure Functions Core Tools.
C. Using the Azure Portal's built-in editor.
D. By creating an App Service Plan.
Answer: B. The Core Tools allow for local development and debugging.
94
What is the primary use case for an HTTP-triggered function?
A. Processing files uploaded to storage.
95 B. Building a REST API or webhook.
96 C. Running scheduled cleanup tasks.
97 D. Ingesting data from IoT devices.
98 Answer: B. HTTP triggers are the go-to for web-based, synchronous interactions.
99
Which of the following is a common misconception about the Azure Free Tier?
A. It includes some free Azure Functions executions.
100 B. It will automatically stop your function app when the free limit is reached.
C. It requires a credit card to sign up.
D. It provides a limited number of services.
101 Answer: B. The Free Tier does not stop your service; it begins charging at the standard rate.
102
What does the term "serverless" mean in the context of Azure Functions?
A. Your code does not run on a server.
103 B. You are not responsible for provisioning or managing servers.
104 C. Your application can only handle a single user at a time.
D. Your code is executed on a mobile device.
Answer: B. The cloud provider handles all the server management tasks.
105
How do you handle secrets and connection strings in a secure way in Azure Functions?
A. Hard-code them directly into the function code.
B. Store them in a local
.txtfile.C. Use Application settings in the Azure Portal or Azure Key Vault.
106 D. Pass them as query parameters in an HTTP request.
107 Answer: C. Application settings and Key Vault are the recommended, secure methods for managing secrets.
108
What is a key benefit of using Durable Functions for an order processing workflow?
A. It eliminates the need for any code.
B. It allows the workflow to be stateful and long-running.
109 C. It reduces the cost to zero.
D. It makes the workflow run on-premises.
Answer: B. Durable Functions can persist state and manage long-running processes without boilerplate code.
110
Which file defines the triggers and bindings for an Azure Function?
A.
settings.jsonB.
package.jsonC.
function.jsonD.
appsettings.jsonAnswer: C. The
function.jsonfile is where you configure a function's triggers and bindings.
In a stream processing scenario, which Azure service would likely be the input for an Azure Function?
A. Azure SQL Database
B. Azure Event Hubs
C. Azure Cosmos DB
D. Azure Active Directory
Answer: B. Event Hubs is designed for high-volume, real-time event ingestion, making it a perfect input for a function.
111
What is the purpose of an "output binding"?
A. To get data from an external resource.
B. To pass data to a trigger.
C. To save data to an external resource without writing specific SDK code.
D. To manage inbound network traffic.
Answer: C. Output bindings automatically write the results of your function's execution to another service.
112
When would you choose the Azure Functions Premium Plan?
A. When you have a tight budget.
B. When your functions have a variable workload with no latency requirements.
C. When you need predictable performance and want to avoid cold starts.
D. When you want to host a static website.
Answer: C. The Premium Plan is designed for predictable, low-latency performance.
113
True or False: Azure Functions can be triggered by a message in an Azure Service Bus queue.
114 A. True
B. False
Answer: A. Azure Functions has a native trigger for Service Bus queues and topics.
115
What does the term "FaaS" stand for?
A. Fully as a Service
B. Function as a Service
116 C. File as a Service
D. Frontend as a Service
Answer: B. FaaS is a category of cloud computing services where developers write and deploy code in the form of functions.
117
What is the main benefit of an HTTP trigger over a timer trigger?
A. It can only run once a day.
B. It is a one-way, non-response trigger.
C. It is an event-driven trigger that can be called on demand.
118 D. It is a scheduled, recurring trigger.
119 Answer: C. HTTP triggers respond to external requests, making them on-demand and suitable for APIs.
120
Which of the following would be a good use case for a timer-triggered function?
A. Building a REST API.
B. Processing images uploaded by a user.
121 C. Running a daily data synchronization task.
D. Ingesting data from an Event Hub.
Answer: C. Timer triggers are perfect for scheduled, recurring tasks.
122
What is the primary competitor to Azure Functions in the AWS cloud?
A. AWS EC2
B. AWS S3
C. AWS Lambda
D. AWS RDS
Answer: C. AWS Lambda is the direct competitor to Azure Functions.
Which is a major benefit of using bindings?
A. They allow you to write more complex code.
B. They increase the cold start time.
C. They reduce boilerplate code for data integration.
123 D. They are only available for C# functions.
Answer: C. Bindings handle the connection and data transfer, eliminating the need for developers to write the code for these tasks.
124
Which type of function is best for writing a log entry whenever an application error occurs?
A. HTTP Trigger
125 B. Blob Trigger
C. Timer Trigger
D. Queue Trigger
Answer: D. An application could add an error message to a queue, and a queue-triggered function could process and log it.
126
What is the primary role of an "Activity Function" in Durable Functions?
A. It orchestrates the workflow.
B. It represents the unit of work in a durable workflow.
127 C. It handles all HTTP requests.
D. It manages the function's state.
Answer: B. Activity functions are the basic units of work within a Durable Functions orchestration.
128
What is a "service bus" trigger used for?
A. Triggering functions on a specific schedule.
129 B. Responding to HTTP requests.
130 C. Processing messages from an Azure Service Bus queue or topic.
131 D. Processing files in blob storage.
132 Answer: C. The Service Bus trigger is specifically for handling messages from the Azure Service Bus messaging service.
133
What is a key benefit of the Azure Functions open-source runtime?
A. It reduces the cost to zero.
B. It allows you to run functions on a local server.
134 C. It supports community contributions and cross-platform development.
D. It guarantees zero cold starts.
Answer: C. The open-source nature allows for community collaboration and running the runtime on other platforms.
135
When would you use Azure Functions for a microservices architecture?
A. To create a single, monolithic application.
B. To build small, independent, and scalable services.
C. To host a large-scale database.
D. To manage network traffic.
136 Answer: B. The event-driven and scalable nature of functions makes them perfect for building individual microservices.
137
What is the name of the tool used for local Azure Functions development?
A. Azure CLI
B. Azure Storage Explorer
C. Azure Functions Core Tools
D. Azure DevOps
Answer: C. The Core Tools provide a local runtime environment for developing and testing functions.
138
What is a key difference in pricing between the Consumption and Premium plans?
A. Premium plan has a fixed monthly cost.
B. Premium plan costs more because it reserves pre-warmed instances.
139 C. Consumption plan is always more expensive.
D. There is no difference in pricing.
Answer: B. The Premium plan has a cost for its pre-warmed instances to ensure low latency.
140
Which of the following is NOT a good practice for minimizing cold starts?
A. Using the Premium Plan.
B. Reducing the number of dependencies.
C. Using the most lightweight programming language possible.
D. Using the Consumption Plan for a high-traffic API.
Answer: D. The Consumption Plan is prone to cold starts, making it a poor choice for high-traffic, low-latency APIs.
141
What is the main advantage of using Azure Functions over a traditional web application running on a VM?
A. Functions are easier to write.
142 B. Functions automatically scale and you don't manage the underlying servers.
143 C. Functions are always faster.
D. Functions are always cheaper.
Answer: B. The automatic scaling and lack of server management are the core benefits of the serverless model.
144
How can you handle a long-running task in a function that exceeds the 10-minute timeout?
A. Use Durable Functions.
B. Use a Timer Trigger instead.
C. Increase the timeout to unlimited.
145 D. It's not possible to run a task that long in Azure Functions.
Answer: A. Durable Functions are specifically designed for long-running processes by persisting state.
146
Which tool is best for monitoring and diagnosing issues in a running Azure Function app?
A. Azure Monitor and Application Insights.
B. Azure CLI.
147 C. Azure DevOps.
148 D. Visual Studio.
Answer: A. Application Insights provides powerful telemetry and diagnostic data.
149
What is the purpose of an Event Hubs trigger?
A. To trigger a function in response to a simple HTTP request.
B. To process a high volume of events from a stream.
C. To process messages in a queue.
150 D. To run on a schedule.
Answer: B. Event Hubs is built for high-volume data streaming, and the trigger is for processing that stream.
151
In a fan-out/fan-in workflow, which feature of Azure Functions would you use?
A. Timer Trigger
152 B. HTTP Trigger
153 C. Durable Functions
D. A combination of Blob and Queue triggers.
Answer: C. Durable Functions provides native support for the fan-out/fan-in pattern.
154
What is the key benefit of an "Isolated Worker Process" in Azure Functions?
A. It allows a function to run on a local machine only.
155 B. It lets a function run in an isolated process, providing more control and language flexibility.
156 C. It reduces the cost of the function.
D. It is only available for Python functions.
Answer: B. The isolated worker process decouples your function from the Functions runtime, providing more control over dependencies and a better developer experience.
Which of the following describes a key difference between Azure Functions and AWS Lambda?
A. AWS Lambda supports more languages.
157 B. Azure Functions is cheaper per execution.
C. Azure Functions offers a more integrated story for stateful workflows with Durable Functions.
158 D. AWS Lambda is not event-driven.
Answer: C. Durable Functions is a key differentiator that is more integrated than AWS's Step Functions.
What is the main purpose of the
host.jsonfile in an Azure Function app?A. To define the triggers and bindings for each function.
B. To store application secrets and connection strings.
159 C. To configure global settings for all functions in the app.
D. To define the function's dependencies.
Answer: C. The
host.jsonfile contains configuration that affects all functions within a Function App.
How can you ensure that an Azure Function is triggered whenever a new file is uploaded to Blob Storage?
A. By using an HTTP Trigger.
B. By using a Blob Trigger.
C. By using a Timer Trigger.
D. By using an Event Hubs Trigger.
160 Answer: B. The Blob Trigger is specifically designed for this event.
161
Which Azure service would you use to store data that is read by a function via an input binding?
A. Azure Active Directory
B. Azure Event Grid
C. Azure Cosmos DB
D. All of the above are valid.
Answer: C. Azure Cosmos DB is a common choice for an input binding source, but other services like Blob Storage are also valid.
162
True or False: A single function app can contain multiple functions with different triggers.
163 A. True
B. False
Answer: A. A Function App is a logical container for many functions, which can have various triggers.
How can you handle unhandled exceptions in an Azure Function?
A. By using a
try-catchblock.B. By using Application Insights for logging and monitoring.
C. By implementing a retry policy on the trigger.
D. All of the above.
Answer: D. A combination of
try-catchblocks, monitoring, and retry policies is the best practice for robust error handling.166
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